Operant Conditioning Essay Example for Free

Operant Conditioning EssayThe term operant condition is heard all over the psychology world. It is hotshot of the first theories that one is introduced to during their psychology learning years. So, what exactly is this theory? While learning about operant conditioning we must pay attention to devil necessities, absolute and ban documentations. These two play a key role in operant conditioning and doingss. But which reinforcement method works better? Positive or negative? there ar a few aspects to look into when determining which method works the best. Once operant conditioning, positive reinforcement, and negative reinforcement are learned, hence it becomes easy for an separate to take the information and shape a behavior. Along with shaping behaviors, the creation of a reinforcement schedule can withal be applied to the selected behavior.The Theory of Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning was created by behaviorist BF Skinner. Operant conditioning occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviors. This creates a link amongst a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Skinner had believed that it was non rattling necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivation in order to excuse behavior. Instead we should look only at the external observable causes of human behavior (Cherry, 2005). When we have actions that are followed by reinforcement, they pass on be strengthened and then more liable(predicate) to occur over again in the future. However, actions that root in punishments or non-desirable consequences will be the opposite. These actions will be weakened and less likely to occur again (Cherry, 2005). An congresswoman of operant conditioning would be a unripened child during potty training. The young boy would receive a cookie along with praise right after he goes potty in the toilet but receives nonhing when he goes in his diaper. As a result of this, he learns to go in the toilet andavoids going in the diaper.Posit ive and Negative ReinforcementLet us first begin with what a reinforcement is. A reinforcement is any particular that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows (Cherry, 2005). Now, there are two types of reinforcements and they are negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement. With positive reinforcement, palmy events or outcomes are presented after the behavior. This is where the behavior is strengthened (Cherry, 2005). This occurs because there is the addition of something new such as praise or an instantaneous reward. An example of this would be little Johnny receiving a dollar right after he cleans his room. On the other hand, with negative reinforcement there is removal of an unfavorable event or outcome after the display of a behavior. This in turn will strengthen the response when something that is looked at as unpleasant is removed (Cherry, 2005).An example for this would be the professor offering to cancel the quiz for week two if everyone turns in their home work for week one. Now as one can nail negative reinforcement is different from punishment because in the cases of punishment the behavior decreases. In either one of these cases the behavior of the individual increases. To look at two positive and negative reinforcement, can we decide which one is more favorable or which one will produce a better outcome? It seems as if that would depend on the individual themselves.Not everyone responds or reacts to stimuli in the same way. In an opinion, reaction can be based on personality. For example, a young child could consistently be given the option of money after cleaning their room on their own and still not do it because it is not favorable to them. However, the same child could jump for the opportunity of not having to attend church if all their homework is turned in the week prior. On an individual level, a household can contain one child that responds to positive reinforcement while the other responds to negative reinforcement.The Scenario and ScheduleThere are two reinforcement schedules, continuous and partial. Continuous reinforcement is reinforcing the behavior every single while it occurs (Cherry, 2005). With partial reinforcement, responses are only reinforced part of the time (Cherry, 2005). There are four schedules with partialreinforcement, fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, and variable interval. Fixed ration is reinforcing a behavior after a specific total of responses have occurred. With fixed interval, a behavior is reinforced after a specific period of time has elapsed. Variable ratio involves reinforcing the behavior after an irregular number of responses and variable interval is reinforcing the behavior after the unpredictable period of time has elapsed. To better understand these schedules, it would be helpful to apply a selected behavior and first learn how operant conditioning can be applied.As a single parent of two daughters, ages 14 and 11, learning how to apply operant condi tioning to shape their behavior, has been very helpful. It was set up for the children to bring home weekly progress reports after a few incidents of missing assignments. If the progress reports were positive with no missing assignments the children were praised on site and each given a dollar per class. If there were any missing assignments in any of their classes, then the children would not receive any money or praise. This is a positive reinforcement choice. The completion of assignments and grades from the children in school increased in order for them to receive a reward.Now, it is time to choose the reinforcement schedule for the scenario just talked about. It is understood that positive reinforcement was used by giving praise and a reward erst the desired assignments and grades were met every week. This would be an example of a continuous reinforcement schedule. The desired behavior is reinforced every single time that it happens. With the scenario, every week that goes by with good grades and no missing assignments, the children are rewarded with praise and money. This creates a strong association between the behavior and the response (Cherry, 2005).ConclusionOperant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future (Cherry, 2005). This can be good or bad behavior. Good behavior was reinforced with the above scenario. However, if you give into the child that kicks and screams every time he wants a candy bar in the store, you are strengthening that negative behavior. Learning occurs with positive and negative reinforcements being key parts to operant conditioning.Both of these help to increase or decrease the likelihood ofthe desired behavior. Determining which reinforcement is better, depends on the individual at hand and what their personality will respond to better. With the above scenario the children responded better to positive reinforcement and with the reinforcement schedule, the likelihood that no missing assignments and good grades occur, increases. Operant conditioning is used every daylight and plays a vital role in the world. By learning about the fundamentals of operant conditioning, shaping behaviors can be easier than ever Well, not really but hey, Rome was not built in a day.REFERENCECherry, K. A. (2005). Operant conditioning. Retrieved from http//psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.htmCherry, K. A. (2005). Schedules of reinforcement. Retrieved from http//psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/schedules.htm

Internal and External Constraints Facing Venetian Ices Ltd Essay Example for Free

Internal and External Constraints Facing Venetian Ices Ltd EssayConstraints are laws, which the ships company must abide by. in that respect are two divergent types of constraints these are internal and external constraints. Internal constraints are those that the company supremacys their selves such as* Availability of finance* Existing company policy* Peoples behaviourExternal constraints are decisions that are made outside the companys control such as* Government and EC legislation* Competitors behaviour* motive of technology* The economic environmentThe internal constraints facing Venetian scratchs include1.EquipmentVenetian Ices need equipment in site to produce their goods and as well as keep the frost cream frozen. So obviously they will need equipment such as freezers (to store the ice cream), new ice cream making machines in order to produce the ice cream for the customers. They will also need a mobile van, so that customers could arise ice cream in different areas. other equipment that Venetian Ices could have is packaging, this will be for customers who would want to buy a whole tub of ice cream from them. in that location are rough problems, which whitethorn occur when replacement or extra equipment is needed. Venetian ices could in fact find themselves in a position where they are unable to afford the equipment that they would want available to them. In the case of additional equipment there may not be enough room on the sight of enough employees to operate any the machinery.2. Financing the development of a Franchisee operationVenetian Ices must provide finance to their franchisees in order to get them started and set up in the subscriber line world. Venetian Ices can get their finance from a number of places and ways. The first is retained profit, but that can possible prove difficult for them, as atrophied companies such as themselves only tend to make a small profit. They can also get their finance from selling as much ic e cream as they possibly can. Venetian ices would have to buy all the equipment and premised that they would require when they are setting up a business up and also paying all of the workers in their franchisee. This misbegottens that when a new franchisee joins at first Venetian Ices have to spend a lot of capital and get little back in return.3. Staffing for Increased Production OutputBy increasing the number of staff it would increase the output of the company, but this will mean having to pay out more money in order to pay their new employees. Also they may have a problem with the size of the premises. There could be a problem with the amount of people allowed to work in the building, if there isnt enough room for everyone they would have to employ less people be pay back they would like.Some External constraints that may affect Venetian Ices include1.Raising financeHow much finance Venetian Ices can raise depends a lot on the public who purchase ice cream from them and also i nvestors who decide to invest money in the company. This could cause a problem though because in winter ice cream is less popular and a whole lot less people would come and purchase ice cream during the cold period. This could because mean investors will not want to invest in an ice cream company, which for part of the reason will not raise much finance.2. prep PermissionIf Venetian Ices decided they wanted to expand their premises or decide to build new premises for their company, they would require planning permission from the topical anesthetic council or the government. If Venetian Ices did decide to go ahead with an extension or the building of a new building without a contract from the authorities and so they could be taken to court and forced to abandon work on their new premises completely.3. FranchisingVenetian Ices do not have complete control over its franchisees, as the franchiser does not always check them on. This can mean that franchisees may run the business agai nst the company policy and use different and methods. For prototype if the franchisee trains the staff in how to recruit then the staff must do exactly as they are told to, if they recruit people in a different way or people who Venetian Ices dont want. This could lead to the company having a bad reputation.4. LawVenetian Ices must follow and work by all the laws. There has being laws set about methods of employment, training, European regulations and also food which would defiantly apply to Venetian Ices. These laws can be checked often by government inspectors.5. TourismTourism is a big market for Venetian Ices as they make up a large percentage of customers in some areas where there are mobile and ice cream parlours. Tourist also often purchases goods on impulse. However, Venetian Ices cannot insure that the number of tourists in a reliable area will remain the same all the time.6. Foot and Mouth DiseaseAnother outbreak of nates and mouth can cause proficient problems for Ven etian Ices. Foot and Mouth affect cows, which Venetian ices, depends on for its main ingredient, which is milk. Another foot and mouth epidemic breaking out would make it weighed down obtaining the milk and also getting it transported as certain areas of the countryside would be shut off, therefore making transportation hard. Foot and mouth can also cause tourism to drop in certain areas and possibly even close. This would lead Venetian Ices in an awful position in them areas affected by foot and mouth. There could possibly be people who would want to stay away from the ice cream due to foot and mouth.

The Importance Of Observing Children Children And Young People Essay

The Importance Of Observing squirtren nipperren And Young People Es rangeThis report discusses and evaluates the role of bill deep down an education aspect. persona 1 details the importance of observant modernsterren followed by an evaluation of a wheel of utteranceal techniques. fragment 2 looks at the background of the child cosmos observed in the report whilst section 3 makes reference to the appendix which contains 3 mirror images demonstrating a range of observational techniques. Section 4 contains an analysis of the childs acquirement and developing fates. Section 5 makes recommendations to inform the future practice of the setting and its practicians whilst section 6 reflects on the practicians role in the observational subroutine.Section 1 The Importance of observing children. honoring is a fundamental and crucial aspect of the practicians role and enables them to insure children as learners and as individuals. Observations are an invaluable source of dev elopment which fall by the waysides the practitioner to plan a more than get curriculum that supports childrens development according to their individual inevitably. It is an integral part of the assessment and mean cycle.Observations involve watching children play and take part in activities twain inside and outside the classroom. Observations allow the practitioner to acquire knowledge and understanding of what is interesting and motivating to children both as individuals and as classifys. squirtren respond variously to activities, experiences, and areas of provision. They acquire clevernesss, accomplishment styles, friendships, and behavioural patterns which are individual to apiece child. Observations give the practitioner an opportunity to land this emblem of entropy as well as abeting them in determining where the child is on the discipline continuum and highlighting any thornyies they whitethorn shit. This development posterior have a very positive impa ct on childrens learning when apply impressionively in informing the planning process.Observations give vital info regarding the enduringness of provision. The development of areas within an educational setting takes into account their success with the children that use them. Observations are integral when evaluating much(prenominal) areas as they give a true record of how the children use the area and the effectiveness of it. tikerens behaviour, comments, body speech communication and interactivity with their peers and practitioners give an invaluable insight into the effectiveness of the provision. Practitioners are responsible for facilitating a childs learning. Observations allow the evaluation of the effectiveness of the practitioners role and muckle inform a practitioner of their professional developmental needs.The planning process takes into account the needs of each individual child and this process is informed through the analysis / assessment of the observations carried out by the practitioner. Without such observations it would be an impossible task to interpret that the mean activities of the setting, the areas of provision, and the systems used by the practitioner were meeting the individual needs of each child. Such is the importance of observation.As Sharman, Cross and Vennis (2007, p.9) state, children and young people are unique and to be awake of their qualities we need to take an interest in what they are doing, listen to what they are saying, learn from what they are telling us.Evaluation of a range of techniques.There are some(prenominal) different techniques that the practitioner may use when observing children and areas of provision. The observation method used pass oning normally be determined by the objective of the observation. Observation methods include narrative / supernumerary translation, checklist / pre-coded, age sample distribution, event sampling, tracking, pie / bar charts, histograms and sociograms. Pra ctitioners may carry out observations as either a participant or a non-participant observer. Each method of observation uses different techniques which may be more display caseed to observing finical characteristics or behaviours. unload Description / Narrative Free comment or narrative observations involve watching a particular child or group of children or indeed an area of provision. The free description observation should record the name of the child, children or area being observed along with the date, m and name of the person carrying out the observation. Clear aims and objectives must be set prior to the start of the observation and should be detailed on the observation sheet. The practitioner should possess a sound understanding of the purpose of the observation and the benefits associated with it to attend to ensure that it is completed appropriately. It is important for the practitioner to decide whether they should observe as a participant or a non-participant. The practitioner should be aware of the affects their involvement may have on a childs behaviour if observing as a participant. Similarly, when observing as a non-participant it is very important for the practitioner to draw as little attention to themselves as possible. The observation should excessively contain a conclusion and an evaluation of what has been put down. Recommendations should then be make to fall the childs learning forward.The practitioner records info in the present tense detailing what they observe as they observe it. This is done over a pre-set extent of time which may be changed during the observation if deemed necessary. The practitioner should be mindful of the importance of remaining objective when record details of the observation. It is important for them to ensure that personal opinions, experiences and / or prejudices do not affect their feeling. Each practitioner will however have their own perspectives and therefore it is good practice to use all pr actitioners within a setting to carry out observations over a period of time. This will help ensure that the information acquired will be balanced and result a luxurianter picture of the child, children or area being observed.Free description observations may be difficult to record as the practitioner may need to write a lot of information down in a short amount of time. There is the potential to miss important information. The practitioners judgement may be influenced by outside factors.Checklist / Pre-coded Checklist or pre-coded observations may be set out in a variety of formats and are normally lists of particular aptitudes within an area of learning. They require planning and preparation prior to the observation being carried out. Information well-nigh one child or a group of children can be recorded using the checklist or pre-coded method. Checklists or pre-coded observations should contain the name and age of the child, the number of adults and children present, the acti vity being observed, the area where the activity takes place, and the aims and objectives of the observation. The purpose of the observation influences the information contained within the checklist. For example, an observation with an aim of determining the fine motor skills of a particular child may contain such statements as can consider a pencil with tripod grip or can control a pencil. (WAG, 2011, p.9)These skills may be given a code to aid the practitioner carrying out the observation to complete it more easily. This would be in particular helpful when observing a number of children at the same time. Checklists can also be used to record activities and their progress.It is vital to continuously refer to the aim of the observation when preparing the assessment criteria for the checklist. The practitioner should ensure that the criteria are both relevant and appropriate in aiding the assessment and analysis of a specified purpose. For example, the practitioner must ensure the criteria is age appropriate and provisions available to the child support the skill being observed. As with the free description observation it is extremely important for the practitioner to remain objective. All practitioners should perform similar observations to help ensure that the information acquired will be balanced and leave alone a fuller picture of the child, children or area being observed. It is good practice for a particular skill or behaviour to be observed several times before an overall judgement is made. The observation should include a conclusion and an evaluation of the recorded information and recommendations should be made.Checklists and pre-coded observations can be restrictive as they require a simple yes, no or nearly answer to each criteria. The information recorded may not contain much detail or background information of the child.Time sampling Time sampling is a technique that requires the practitioner to observe the child, children or area over a matter of time. It can be used to monitor behaviour, fond interactions and dynamics within groups, style skills, and usage of areas of provision.Time sampling observations can be completed using written descriptions or pre-coded criteria. The practitioner should remain objective when completing the observation and a variety of staff should complete similar observations to ensure reliability. It is also important for the practitioner to be aware of their involvement and the affect this may have on the child or children being observed.This eccentric person of observation is very adaptable and can be changed to suit the individual setting. It is a quick method for recording information. It can be used for individuals and groups. There is no requirement for a background knowledge of the child.Time sampling observations do have some disadvantages. They provide information which can be time consuming to analyse. This type of observation may need to take place over a long period of time. Ther e is a possibility that something significant may be missed if it does not happen within the observation time scale.Tracking Another method of observing is tracking. Tracking can be used to record a childs movements within the setting as well as the time they spend on a particular activity. It is an appropriate method of highlighting the areas of provision a child has a preference for along with the way in which the area is used. preliminary to the observation winning place the practitioner should complete a plan of the area and consider how they will record the movements of the child. A code may be used to aid with this. Times may be recorded if required. If it is necessary to record skills this can be done separately.Tracking is advantageous as it can be used in any area of the setting, both deep down and outdoors. It supports the foundation phase curriculum which requires the usage of the outdoors as part of the childs learning and involves less structured, more independent pl ay. It can indicate more popular areas and provisions which allows the practitioner to see the preferences of the child and gives them the opportunity to adapt their planning to suit the childs needs. It can also indicate the attention span of a particular child.Tracking can become quite difficult if the practitioner has to track more than one child at a time. The plan may become untidy and hard to follow if the child visits lots of areas. Tracking is not particularly informative for outside professionals. A detailed description of the childs movements may not be recorded and information can be limited.Sociogram Sociograms focus on social development. It shows how the child interacts with other children and adults and can demonstrate their popularity. Social observations can quickly show the social development of children. This information can be used by the practitioner to plan activities and experiences to further develop the childs social development. Sociograms, however, do not describe the reasons why something has happened. They only detail what has happened.Event Sampling Event sampling is used to observe when an event has taken place. This type of observation can be used to record a childs behavioural or emotional development. It can record any event and includes information detailing how and why the event has occurred. This type of observation can help the practitioner to analyse the cause and effect of certain relationships. The data collected may be produced as a chart making it easier for the practitioner to analyse.Event sampling is not suitable for observing infrequent behaviour and only records the specific behaviour as detailed in the aim of the observation. The recorded data may be misinterpreted as the observation may not record any preceding behaviours. Event sampling can be used within an early years setting as it is adaptable and it provides inference of a particular behaviour.Pie / bar charts Pie or bar charts can be used to give a vi sual representation of information recorded by the practitioner. It is an effective method to use with both individual children and groups and makes data easy to read. This type of observation is suitable for early years settings as it is very adaptable and can be used to record information such as areas of provision used by girls or boys both indoors and outdoors (highlighting childrens preferences), which children participate in a particular activity (e.g. physical), or what children eat during snack time. This information can then inform a settings planning to make it more suitable to the children.Pie or bar charts do not indicate why a particular event has taken place, only that it has happened. They may require a longer set up period than other types of observations and data may be more difficult to interpret.Histogram Histograms can be used to plot the development of a child over a given period of time. The information gathered is detailed on a bar graphical record where each type of activity is shown in a continuous fashion. Histograms allow the practitioner to focus on a particular behaviour over a longer period of time. As with sociograms and pie / bar charts, histograms show that a particular behaviour has occurred but does not give the reason why it has happened.Other types of observation may require slightly different formats. Samples of work are sometimes included for assessment purposes. Photographic and video observations are an effective way of documenting the childs learning process. Photographs should always be annotated or cross-referenced to relevant written observations. Practitioners should request written parental permission for using photography and video devices to record and document childrens learning.Section 2 Background to the individual child.The child is 2 years and 3 months old. She has attended the setting since the beginning of September 2012. She attends 5 morning sessions per week for 2.5 hours each session. She has 1 sibl ing which is 3 months old. The childs mum has informed staff that since the arrival of the new baby the childs behaviour has become much worse than it was previously. The child has exhibited such behaviour as biting, kicking, hitting, pushing, and screaming when she is at home and also outside. This behaviour is display when the child does not get what she wants.The child lives on a council owned solid ground which is within a Communities First area. Communities First is a community focused programme that supports the Welsh Governments Tackling Poverty agenda. It supports the near disadvantaged people in the some deprived areas with the aim of contributing to alleviating persistent poverty. Communities First works alongside other programmes with an aim of narrowing the education/skills, economic and health gaps in the midst of the most deprived and more affluent areas. (http//wales.gov.uk)The area has also been highlighted as a Flying Start area. Flying Start is the Welsh Govern ment targeted Early geezerhood programme for families with children under 4 years of age in some of the most deprived areas of Wales. The core elements of the programme are drawn from a range of options that have been shown to influence positive outcomes for children and their families. These include free quality part-time childcare for 2-3 year olds, an enhanced health visiting service, access to parenting programmes, and early language development. (http//wales.gov.uk)The childs place at the setting is fully funded by the Flying Start Programme. The childs mum does not work and is at home with the children during the day. The childs dad works full time during the week and spends evenings and weekends at home. The childs mum has informed staff at the setting that the child has many cousins. The child sees them on a regular basis. The child is not able to share or take turns with other members of her family and frequently exhibits the inappropriate behaviour mentioned above.Section 3 Evidence of 3 observations using different techniques.Appendix 1 evidence of a free description observation.Appendix 2 evidence of a time sample observation.Appendix 3 evidence of an event sample observation.Analysis of the childs learning and developing needs. infant As mum informed staff at the setting that she does not share or take turns and exhibits inappropriate behaviour when she does not get what she wants. Mum has noticed that infant As behaviour has worsened since the arrival of their new baby.As Dowling (2005, p.105) states, we support a child to show mixed behaviour when faced with the excitement, but also the threat of a new baby in the family.The free description observation highlighted the behaviour of kid A when she was placed in a position of taking turns and sharing a toy. squirt A was observed snatching a doll from child B whilst contend in the home corner of the setting. When baby bird C assay to push the saunterer which was being played with by b arbarian A, peasant A began to scream and pinched tyke C on the face.Following a discussion with a practitioner within the setting Child A apologised to the affected parties however, Child A was then observed a short time later displaying the same behaviour.As Dowling suggests children aged 2 2.5 years old are still developing their sharing and turn taking skills. They need to be encouraged and given opportunities to practice these skills through carefully planned activities.Child A is not able to share or take turns. She does not communicate appropriately with her peers when she wants to play with something. She is not able to lodge until the other child has spotless playing with the item before taking it. Child A is able to apologise when supported by a practitioner.The time sampling observation was carried out 1 week after the free description observation. Child A displayed similar behaviour during this observation as they did during the free description observation. Child B was playing with a plastic niche in the maths area. Child A had attempted to take the box from Child B and when she was not given the box Child A hit and pinched the arm of Child B. Child A looked around the setting and made eye trace with one of the assistants. Child A lowered her head and looked at the floor. After the practitioner spoke to Child A she apologised to Child B. With help from the practitioner Child A collected a sand timer and waited until the sand had washed-up running into the other side. Child A was prompted to ask Child B if she could have her turn with the box. Both children complied with the practitioners requests and received praise. Child A smiled and took the box to the carpet area where she had her turn to play with it.As Sharman, Cross and Venice (2000, p.130) states the developmental milestones indicate that a child aged 2 2.5 years is egocentric. They see the world from their point of view. They are not able to share and will hold onto things with determination.Child A is not able to take turns. She is not prepared to wait for her turn. Child A exhibits inappropriate behaviour when she is not given what she wants when she wants it. Child A is able to apologise when supported by a practitioner. She is also able to wait for her turn when supported by a practitioner and a visual timing device which in this case was a sand timer.The third observation was an event sampling observation. This was carried out 2 weeks after the sign free description observation. The observation recorded the behaviour and social interactions of Child A during a morning session. Child A displayed inappropriate behaviour at several times during the day and in several areas of the classroom. She took what she wanted without asking and screamed when a child tried to take an item back or when they tried to take something that she was already playing with. Child A did not speak very much to the other children or to the practitioners in the setting. She apol ogised when prompted to do so by a practitioner. Child A was not always responsible for the incidents that took place.As Dowling (2005, p.108) says before children start to regulate their behaviour they must begin to learn about cause and effect. Children need to be able to empathise to understand how others feel..Recommendations to inform future practice.The first observation which was a free description think that Child A was not able to share. Child A showed very little understanding of this concept. She exhibited inappropriate behaviour to her peers when presented with a sharing situation.It is important for practitioners to understand how frustrating it can be for young children to share and to understand the concepts. The ability to share is developed over a period of time. Young children find it difficult to understand how others feel as they are not yet able to empathise.Having more than one type of toy can be beneficial for young children as it gives them an opportunity t o play in parallel with the same type of provision. Where possible, more than one of each provision should be made available to the children in each area of the setting.As Fisher (1993, p.29) states appropriately resourced and supported, child-initiated activity can bring about some of the most creative and innovative learning in the classroomPlanning activities which encourage turn taking will allow the child to practice this skill and would also allow them to begin to realise that they will have their own opportunity to play with a particular item.The second observation, time sampling, concluded that Child A cannot communicate her needs appropriately. Child A has not yet learnt to ask for what she wants. Instead she exhibits inappropriate behaviour such as pinching. Child A is able to apologise to the affected party when prompted to do so by one of the practitioners. She is also willing to wait for her turn when supported by a practitioner and a visual aid demonstrating a set amou nt of time a sand timer.Encouraging Child A to ask for a particular item and rewarding her with praise when she does will reinforce to the child that it is appropriate behaviour. Skinner suggests that reinforcement of a particular behaviour will prompt a repeat of the same behaviour at a later time. Sharman, Cross and Vennis (2007, p.11) state, children need adults to notice their achievements and provide an environment to support their further development.Games such as dominoes or snap tease will strengthen and support turn taking skills. Other activities which encourage turn taking will allow the child to decide when they have finished playing with a piece of equipment. Some children may be happy to give the item to someone else when they feel they have finished using it.The third observation, time sampling, recorded some similar behaviours as the previous observations. Child A was not able to take turns when using the pencils. It also provided evidence that Child A is able to c arry out some instructions such as tidying up. Child A was following an instruction and putting the cars away. She snatched one from another(prenominal) child to put it in the appropriate box. Child A was not able to ask for the car and just took it. Child A was also not able to share the parachute and she screamed when another child tried to hold it.Where a child is not able to take turns, the practitioner should support them by explaining why they should take turns and will use an item to display a set amount of time, for example, a sand timer. Whilst a child waits for their turn the practitioner should support them by suggesting an activity to do. The practitioner will give the child simple choices to allow them to choose an item, game or activity for themselves and this will allow them to feel that they have made their own choice.Reflect on your role in the observational process.Through observations the practitioner is able to learn what the children know, evaluate their needs a nd plan appropriately to facilitate their learning. Staff training is an integral part of the settings self-evaluation process and allows the practitioner to consider the importance of observing children and developing the necessary skills. The practitioner will organise an allocated observation time and is more aware of the need for incidental observations.The practitioner has a better understanding of the importance of gathering information from a range of contexts, both inside and outside the setting. Observations should be a constant source of vital information concerning both the childrens and the settings development. They should form a fair, round and holistic record over a period of time. The practitioner will address their observations during the settings weekly planning meeting and will share information between practitioners.The practitioner further understands the need for the effective implementation of observations and their impact on the future planning of the setting to facilitate the learning needs of all the children.As Fisher (2000. P.19) says, ensure that the planned curriculum is appropriate. This leads to planning that is tailor-made for each child because the foundations of learning are unique.The evaluation of the setting which involves all staff helps to ensure that the learning environment supports children in initiating their own learning. The practitioner is fully aware that observations must be fed into the assessment process for individual children. Parents will be further encouraged to contribute to observations through informal and formal discussions with the practitioner. Proformas will be used to ensure consistency of information within each type of observation. Photographic evidence will be annotated to support observations to document the childrens learning.Sharman, Cross and Vennis (2007, p.2) cites the work of CACHE (2005) who states that play workers exist to support childrens natural play and they do this by creating spa ces where play can happen. Then they unobtrusively observe, intervene very occasionally, and then reflect on what they have seen and done.Appendices.Appendix 1Observation 1 Free Description / Narrative.Date 23rd October 2012Time Commenced 0940 Time Completed 0945Number of Children 3 sphere Ty Bach TwtName of Child Child A Age 2yrs 3mthsAim To observe the behaviour of Child A during free play.Objectives To observe and record Child As ability to share.Child A is playing in the home corner of the setting with 2 other children. Child A snatches a doll from Child B. Child B does not attempt to take the doll back. Child A puts the doll in a pushchair. Child C takes hold of the handles of the pushchair and tries to push it. Child A begins to scream and grabs the handles of the pushchair. Child A pulls the pushchair away from Child C. Child C keeps hold of the pushchair. Child A keeps one hand on the pushchair and uses the other hand to pinch Child C on the face. A practitioner intervenes at this point. The practitioner speaks to Child A.Dont do that. It isnt nice. You mustnt pinch. It hurts. Child B was playing with the doll. Can you give the doll back to child B please. Would you like to play with this doll instead?Child A lowers her head. The practitioner asks Child A to look at her. Child A does not respond. The practitioner asks Child A to look at her again. Child A makes eye contact with the practitioner.P-Can you give the doll back to Child B please. You can play with this doll if you want to.Child A gives the doll back to Child B.P-Can you say sorry to Child B for snatching the doll? Child A Sorry. P-Da iawn Child A.You can have a turn of that doll when Child B has finished playing with it.P-Child C wants to play with the pushchair with you. He is your friend. You will make Child C sad if you pinch him. Can you say sorry to Child C please for pinching him.Child A Sorry.P-Da iawn. Merch dda. Can you push the baby together? Thats a nice thing to do. Maen neis i rannu.Child A nods. Child A and Child C push the pushchair across the room. Child A grabs Child Cs hands and pinches them. Child C lets go of the pushchair and Child A runs across the room with it. The same practitioner intervenes.Conclusion Child A wanted to play with a doll that was being played with by Child B. Child A snatched the doll from Child B and did not ask if she could play with it. When Child C attempted to use the pushchair that Child A was playing with, Child A screamed and pinched Child C on the face. Later, Child A agreed to allow Child C to push the pushchair with her, but after a very short period of time Child A pinched Child Cs hands. Child A ran across the room with the pushchair when Child C let go of it.Evaluation Child A is not able to share or take turns. She does not communicate appropriately with her peers when she wants to play with something. She is not able to wait until the other child has finished playing with the item before taking it. Child A is able to apologise when supported by a practitioner.Recommendations Give opportunities to practice sharing and turn taking skills through carefully planned activities.Encourage the child to share and remind them that it is nice to share with their friends.Give immediate praise when child shares or takes turns.Appendix 2Observation 2 Time Sampling.Date 2nd November 2012Time Commenced 1020 Time Completed 1027Number of Children 2 Area Maths AreaName of Child Child A Age 2yrs 3mthsAim To observe a target child interacting with a child of similar age whilst playing in the maths area.Objectives To observe and record Child As social interactions.Child A has just entered the maths area and looks at the jigsaw puzzles on the table. Child A approaches the table and starts to take the pieces out of the jigsaw. Another child is already playing in the area. Child B takes a plastic box from a shelving unit and begins to shake it. Child A looks at Child B and the box. Child A approaches Child B and attempts to take the box from her. Child B does not allow Child A to take the box. Child A hits Child B on the arm then pinches it. Child B starts to cry. Child B continues to hold the plastic box. Child A looks around the setting and makes eye contact with a practitioner. Child A lowers her head and looks at the floor. Child A lets go of the plastic box. The practitioner walks over to Child A and kneels down. The practitioner asks Child A to look at her. Child A does not respond. The practitioner again asks Child A to look at her.

How to Have a Good Golf Game

How to Have a Good golf mettlesome GameGolf is much more than just smash the b tout ensemble, finding it and hitting it again. It is a constant learning process with unforgettable experiences. Golf offers you independence, but ultimately it al ways comes gobble up to how well you know your limitations and the confidence you submit in your ability. You must give the heart and head to scam and the courage to accept the consequences. There be no shortcuts. Although in that respect be many factors that contribute to success, golf requires patience and practice, as at that place is no comfort zone. Patience and practice pay off. Golf is a never-ending journey full of learning and discovery.Golf is a tough sport. You are going to need to work on and try to perfect your technical skills. To beget a pro golfer, you can leap out at any age. As long as you deem passion to play the game, you can fulfill your dreams (Wright 4). The good news is that anyone has a shot at becoming a pro golfer. The bad news is that the game is extremely difficult to play at a professional level and the competition is fierce. To become a professional golfer requires putting in hours of practice. A young golfer should start playing on various local anesthetic courses on a regular basis. One needs to take golf lessons and a have a teacher analyze their form and authorise them pointers for improvement. According to Wright a spate of players accept the idea that they go away have good days and bad days on the greens and therefore dont work at it. In fact, admit and practice produces results (*). There is, and always will be, room for improvement. You besides need to develop the appropriate mental and physical traits (10). You must practice the game every day and devote a lot of time to it. The golf swing will always be a work in progress irrespective of how good it is.The goal is to be your best every day. Once you start feeling confident in your golf game, it is time to get out there and compete. To further your golf game, you should con steadr going to a golf school. If you are in high school, see if there is a school golf team up or club to join. To see how you stack up against the competition, you can enter incompetent events. Check with your local golf courses for more information about amateur events coming to your area (Keough42). In amateur events, you can play against former(a) golf amateurs. By doing well in some amateur events, that can give you the needed confidence to take your dreams to the next level. The first steps towards playing against the pros are beating fellow amateurs (44). Start by playing tourneys at your local golf courses, then state and national junior events. Success in those events leads to recognition for college scholarships, and so can good high school golf credential be a very important factor.Of both in all the many factors opening the door to golf, college golf is a terrific developmental ground. Robert, Bell, a student at the University of Minnesota, started his college golf career with this Division I trail. After visiting the campus and seeing the training facilities, I found that they had the program to best fit my needs. It can have an enormous impact on a golfers career since you do not have to pay to play golf, and you do not have to pay for lessons at the driving range. You also get regular practice time with your team, access to weight training and the probability to compete at a high level. umteen professional golfers matured at the college level, on their schools dime. Even Tiger spent two years at Stanford (Elling 15). If you do not play college golf, you can serene refine your skills at the amateur level and prepare to turn professional. The technical skills are important to making it on the PGA, but what separates the best is the mental side of the game (Green 21). If you are a golfer who loves the challenge and has the ability for making big shots in tournament play, you might have the tools to make it. If you play this game long enough, eventually you will face some challenges. It is how you handle those challenges that will define who you are as a competitor.One of the biggest things to do is when you feel you are well above and beyond your amateur competition, is to go to Qualifying School. When starting out on a career to become a professional golfer, every golfers dream of success. The vision may be clear, but without a plan it is just a dream. Becoming a PGA Tour Golfer does not ineluctably required going to college of winning early(prenominal) tournaments. What you must do however is qualify. from each one year there is what is called Qualifying School that covers six grueling rounds of tournament style golf where only a small number of players make it to the tour (Duunbar 19). Anyone can go for it, but it is extremely difficult. According to Dunbar The only other way to qualify for the tour without going to Qualifying School is through s pecial exemptions (21). Each tournament has a committee that line up aside a a couple of(prenominal) special exemptions for players they would like to attend their tournament. One final avenue to becoming a professional PGA golfer is known as the Club master key. Each course around the country has a resident Professional. Gaining membership to this section of the PGA is done through apprentice program. A golfer must work downstairs an established golf professional. Over time, and after fulfilling certain requirements, a player is recognized as a Golf Professional as well. Qualifying School is held every year by the PGA Tour and allows amateurs to compete for a post on the pro tour (25). When you continue to have success against pass along amateurs, this gives you the opportunity to explore your professional options.At this point, finding sponsorship support becomes very important, because breaking into professional golf is very expensive. When you feel ready to take your game t o the professional level, you should begin the process of getting your PGA Tour card. Once you learn with the PGA Tour and pay the registration fee, you begin the qualifying process. About 1% of the people who register for a PGA Tour card get a card each year (Forsyth 39). It is a long and difficult process. You have to finish at the top of various events over the course of months. Mr. Forsyth points out that, it takes most people multiple attempts, if ever, to get onto the PGGA tour (41). Even after obtaining your PGA Tour card there is no guarantee you will remain on the tour. Each year requires you to play well enough to keep your PGA Tour card. There are various ways to retain your card, such as being in the top 120 players or finishing in the top ten in a engage (42). One of the major rewards of the game is that every round begins with a new scorecard. Every time you walk onto the course, you play with the thought that this is your day to be the champion. With all the benefi ts of this career, it is clear why professional golfers say, Play golf for a living and never work a day in your life. (44). Golf is one of the few professional sports where you can control your own future. Even if there are no educational requirements, it would still be best if you finish a score in college so that you have some sort of back up if you do not make it on the tour. To be a Golf Professional will surely take a lot of hard work.Some golfers believe that you must have some sort of natural endowment fund to have chance of becoming a pro. In a book called The Golfers Mind Dr. Bob Rotella states, if becoming an expert means joining the PGA Tour then it is believed that a very minute percentage of us will actually make it, no matter how many hours it is. This side of the issue believes that while most PGA pros have spent the better part of their lives playing golf, they still possess an underlying talent that separates them from the rest of the pack. For every guy on tour there are probably 50 guys that did the same thing growing up but did not have the talent to take it to the next level (Sotzek 112). According to Sotzek, it comes down to the fact that talent by itself can be wasted without practice, work ethic, and desire, but at the same time desire, practice, and work ethic are all pretty useless without some natural talent (114). While most professional athletes have a commodious work ethic, it is still their natural talent that gets them to the top of their game. The opposing views of the natural talent argument by Dr. Bob Rotella states that is an excuse for those that lack drive, motivation, mental fortitude, dedication and the ability to sacrifice. All of these things can be learned and for many professional athletes are learned at an early age so it appears to be natural ability (27). If you read any study about a top golfer, you will realize that they spent the majority of their life practicing their skills because they thrive on competi tion. That is the sacrifice you have to make. So after all is said, both sides of this argument agree on is that golf is a game that cannot be mastered. Most golfers continue to play because of the love of a challenge.Playing great golf is much more than developing solid fundamentals and sound technique. It is about keeping all things perspective. A lot of players accept that idea that they will have good days and bad days on the golf course and therefore they do not work at it. In fact, study and practice produces results. The golf swing will always be a work in progress regardless of how good you are. The goal is to have a swing that is sound and works with every club in your set and holds up under pressure. The true essence of golf is capitalizing on opportunities and minimizing mistakes. It is a opinion mans game t o a great degree. Every shot is your responsibility. As long as you have the passion for the game, you can fulfill your dreams. Dreams do come true. If you do become a professional golfer, you will have a chance to earn big money and at the same time, play the sport you really love. If you do not like to work inside and if you love the outdoors, you will surely enjoy this kind of profession. Often times, you will also be traveling from one place to another together with your competitors sand so you can also gain many friends. Many young golfers set their hearts on playing on tour, but plenty of other opportunities exist in professional golf far beyond the golf course. PGA professionals are top class players but are also experts in other areas of the golf industry form running golf courses, to coaching and teaching. Becoming a professional golfer is a full-time job that requires commitment and love for the game. A golfer can become mentally tougher by learning from past experiences, because the game is a constant learning process. The approach to achieving a golf goal is to formulate a game plan and proceed systematically. Along the way, there i s a need to assess and reassess strengths and weaknesses honestly. It takes time and effort to pursue a career on the PGA Tour, but the end result will be worth it.

Challenges to Governance and Leadership in Africa

Ch eachenges to Governance and Leadership in AfricaIt is undeniable the fact that cheek and its progeny, leadinghip, pervades every smell of human life and existence. In nations, organizations, families and wherever human life is found, these two variables exist in one form or the other. It is also a truism, that at that place exists a huge organisation and leadership gap in many countries in the world, especially, in Africa. The slow pace of Africas development is concomitant to this government activity and leadership predicament. A 1989 World Bank report on the topic SubSaharan Africa From Crisis to Sustainable Growth A Long-Term Perspective Study affirms this position by stating that underlying the litany of Africas development problems is a crisis of administration (p60). In a similar way, Walumba et al posited that while African countries ar richly endowed with all manner of natural resources, their scotch performance since independence has been generally abysmal with a few exceptions (426). They further argued that ultimately a countrys economic performance is contingent on the effectiveness of its leadership (425). These assertions, dispassionately underscores the governance and leadership predicament in Africa. Consequently, this essay tallyks to discuss some of the reasons why governance and leadership still remain a big challenge in Africa, and also proffer ways to alleviate these bottlenecks, respectively.To begin with, this essay would want to arcdegree out that several reasons contribute to why governance is impoverished in Africa, especially in the Sub-Saharan region. These reasons include the wrong form of governance the true practises as a result of colonialism, selfish leadership, weak institutions, and too much foreign interference on the continent.First and foremost, it is not a ruse that the governance and leadership challenge Africa faces is an upshot of the wrong form of governance the continent is practising or being coerced t o practise. Historical evidence have shown that, many years ago, forwards Africa was colonised by the Europeans, Africans governed themselves through the chiefs, clan and family heads, etceteraand the form of government they practised was gerontocracy and monarchy. These systems of governance as practised by these pre-colonial Africans had its root in their cultural and phantasmal beliefs. Thus, governance and religion/culture were intricately interwoven. Yet, after(prenominal) being colonised, the Europeans forced their form of government on the indigenous people. These forms of government, which are the different forms of democracy we see around the world nowadays, had obstructive and damaging consequences on the religio-cultural orientation of the indigenous people. However, the colonial masters turned a blind eye on these developments. Decades after Africa gained independence, these colonial forms of governance are still being practised in Africa, with much complicatedness. This is simply because, the cultural and religious underpinnings of the African orientation of what governance is, and should be is different from those of the colonial masters. As Africans, our cultural upbringing upholds, fundamentally, communalism which is expressed in our proverbs, religion, folklores, songs, and mythology. In a sharp contrast, the colonial masters form of governance had as its foundation, capitalism. Hence, putting the square peg in the round hole has led to the current governance and leadership challenge in Africa. African leaders are thorn between satisfying their people based on tradition and pleasing their colonial masters because of the carrot and stick model of diplomacy they (colonial masters) employ. This complexity is the basis of the governance and leadership predicament in Africa.Moreover, selfish leadership is a major setback to good governance in Africa, and the underdevelopment of the continent. Post-independent Africa has seen the rise of selfis h, stomach-driven and unmannerly leaders. Some came to power through coup dtats, amidst shedding of innocent bloods, destruction of infrastructure left for the continent by the colonial masters, and looting of the wealthiness of these African nations. These leaders used the power they ceased to amass as much wealth as they could for themselves, their families and cohorts at the detriment of their nations development. Obviously, these leaders had no expertise or knowledge about governance or effective management, hence the worsening of the socio-economic lives of their country, and countrymen. Principles of fundamental human rights were not honoured, while individual, ideological, partizan or even labour dissent were strongly stamped out. The result was regimes collapse either internally or externally engineered between 1963 and 1966, and which attracted international outcry against the governance mode of post independence Africa- Leaders.The other set of leaders, who supposedly were elected to lead their countries, were of no significant difference from their predecessors. Most of these leaders only have as their aim, the comfort and satisfaction of themselves and their families at the disadvantage of the populace. They had no clear vision for their countries. Democratic encounter, in their various countries, witnessed horrible governance style, mismanagement of resources and propagation of self-aggrandizement. Undoubtedly, the leaders Africa has had after independence, under the pretense of liberating their people, have rather contributed to the free-fall/underdevelopment of their countries. This they did by their profligate spending, inept management of arouse resources and infrastructure, and visionless governance.Furthermore, weak institutions since independence have contributed significantly to the governance and leadership predicament in Africa. After most African countries gained independence, instead of the leadership to focus on building strong institutions, where in their absence, those institutions could work to execute the development they sought for which reason they fought of independence, they rather built strong personalities and empire around themselves. This phenomenon has continued perpetually till now. In Africa today, there is the practise of rule by law not rule of law. This is because, people in authority (government) use their power, position and influence to tweak institutions in their favour when it comes to matters of the law. Institutions cannot track down certain individuals in society nowadays because those people are above the law. This phenomenon which is brought about by the partisan politics we practise, have crossed majority of the state institutions in Africa. It has made justice, accountability, transparency and fairness a fairy tale, simply untenable. Institutions in Africa are simply weak and frivolous. Adding to the non-functional institutions is a collection of skewed and corrupt civil s ociety organizations. Instead of these civil societies to be a watchdog of the populace to strengthen state and institutional efficiency, most of them are pursuing partisan agenda.Even more, too much interference of foreign nations on the continent is worrying and highly destructive. This phenomenon is as a result of globalization. Virtually every finding and every action that most African leaders make, is contingent on the approval of their pay masters, the foreign nations. These foreign nations come into the continent in de guise of helping develop it, but with the mindset of draining the natural and human resource of the continent. They determine for us almost everything, from economic policies, to education, to religion, to who should lead the country etc. The ordinary African has a limited stake in deciding for himself and in helping build his country or continent. The Constitutions in most African countries rarely exists due to rule by foreign powers. The ordinary African is not consulted on any issue as power is in the hands of these overlords while our leaders only serve as errand agents to ensure compliance of their subjects.

Feminism is for Everybody :: Free Essays Online

Feminism is for Everybody The following paragraphs atomic number 18 an excerpt from a paper written about the political and social theories of bell maulers. These sections steering specifically on her newest book, Feminism is for Everybody. Throughout her works, hooks maintains a firm belief in the accessibility of the theory she seeks to situate within society. To that end, hooks a la mode(p) work, Feminism is for Everybody, is an accessible book that outlines the basic tenants of a radical feminist theory. More inclusive than many of her other works, this book attempts to address an audience that is wholly unfamiliar with feminist thought. In the introduction, hooks discusses the rampant misconceptions surrounding the movement. In her encounters with people on a daily basis, she finds thatWhen I ask these same folks about thefeminist books or magazines they read, whenI ask them about the feminist talks they have heard,about the feminist activists they eff, they respondby letting me know that everything they know about feminist movement has come into their lives thirdhand sic, thatthey real have not come close enough to thefeminist movement to know what really happens,what its really about. Mostly they think feminismis a bunch of angry women who want to be like men.(vii). It is these misconceptions that hooks feels must be corrected. lone(prenominal) in this way will the everyday relevance of feminism become clear. Hooks goes on to explain that this book is an effort to answer the question what is feminism in a clear, concise way that is not reductive to her readers (viii). She stressed the failure of the feminist movement to produce a multitude of works that are accessible and useful in many arenas. Many of the chapters in Feminism is for Everybody recapitulate and simplify the arguments put forth in Feminist Theory From allowance account to Center. Hooks attempts to diffuse common myths surrounding the feminist mo vement, and to that end, she suggests ways the movement may become all-inclusive. In the section entitled Feminist Masculinity hooks discusses the dichotomy perpetuated by Second Wave feminists who sought to classify the male as the enemy. The polarization of men as the oppressor and woman as the laden propelled the womens movement initially, but it was not long before women were able to step back and realize that the system itself was flawed (68).

HuckleBerry Finn Character List :: essays papers

huckabackleBerry Finn Character ListHe is the protagonist and narrator of the novel. huckaback is a thirteen-year-old boy. Huck is dirty and frequently homeless. He was eer forced to survive on his own wits. But Huck is thoughtful, street smart rather than book smart. In fact he was uneducated. He was always an outcast, he was willing to come to his own conclusions about important stuff, even if the conclusions frequently contradicted societys norms. Huck was easily influenced by others, particularly by his peer Tom.Jim He is one of Miss Watsons household slaves. He is sometimes a little sentimental and very superstitious to the point where you might imagine he is stupid, but its because he knew the world around him. But he was also intelligent, practical, and I think, more of an adult than anyone else in the book. He became a rehabilitation dad to Huck as well as a friend. Because he is a black man and a runaway slave, he was afraid of acquire caught, so he became paranoid. Jim was at the mercy of almost all the other characters in the book.Tom Sawyer He was Hucks friend in this novel. He is everything that Huck is not. Toms stubborn reliance on the authorities of romance novels leads him to acts of incredible stupidity and startling cruelty. His adherence to the uncivilized world gives him something in common with Huck. He learns to figure through and alienate himself from the forces that try to civilize him.Pap Hucks father and the town drunk. When he appears at the beginning of the novel, he is a wreck, with pale white climb and decrepit old clothes. Illiterate himself, he disapproves of Hucks education. Many surrogates are forced to care for his son. Pap represented white trash. intimately of the black characters in the book were morally and physically better than he was. He was a dead-beat and abusive dad. Judge ThatcherJudge Thatcher shared responsibility for Huck with the Widow Douglas, and is in charge of safeguarding the money that Huck found. He takes responsibility for issues affecting the community as a whole. He cared for Huck. When Huck discovers that Pap had returned to town, he signed his fortune over to the Judge, instead of taking it, he promised to hold it for him. Judge Thatcher has a daughter, Becky, who was Toms girlfriend in the earlier novel.